Two main ideas in hypothesis testing are the alpha level and the p-value. The alpha level is a pre-set significance threshold you choose before collecting data; it represents the maximum chance you’re willing to accept of making a Type I error—concluding there is an effect when there isn’t one. The p-value, calculated from your data, tells you how likely you would see data as extreme as what you observed if the null hypothesis were true. If that p-value is smaller than your alpha, you declare the result statistically significant and reject the null. If it isn’t, you don’t reject the null. For example, with an alpha of 0.05, a p-value of 0.03 leads to rejection, while a p-value of 0.08 would not. Remember, the p-value isn’t the probability that the null hypothesis is true, but the probability of observing your data (or more extreme) under the assumption that the null is true.

Structuralism in psychology focuses on conscious experience as a composition of basic sensory elements and how those elements combine to form thoughts and perceptions. Wilhelm Wundt set up the first psychology lab and developed early experimental methods to study these elements, while Edward Bradford Titchener carried the approach to the United States and used trained introspection to identify the smallest components of experience and how they come together. This emphasis on breaking experience into building blocks is why their names are closely linked to structuralism. Other figures you might see associated with different traditions—Freud with psychoanalysis, Watson with behaviorism, and Rogers with humanistic psychology—address different aspects of mind and behavior, not the elemental structure Structuralism aimed to map.

Restlessness is commonly seen in generalized anxiety disorder because the condition involves persistent, excessive worry that keeps the body in a state of heightened arousal. This chronic tension often shows up as an inability to relax, fidgeting, and feeling keyed up or on edge. The other options point to different issues: elation suggests an elevated mood seen in mania, auditory hallucinations indicate psychosis, and sudden, discrete panic attacks are characteristic of panic disorder rather than the diffuse, ongoing worry of generalized anxiety disorder. So restlessness best fits the typical presentation of this condition.

Displacement involves shifting emotional impulses from a forbidden target to a safer substitute, so redirecting those feelings from the original object to something less threatening is exactly what displacement describes. By moving the emotion away from the forbidden target, the ego lowers the anxiety tied to expressing or confronting those impulses directly. This differs from projection, which would involve treating your own unacceptable thoughts as belonging to someone else. Repetition of unwanted behavior to reduce anxiety isn’t displacement—it’s a maladaptive pattern that can reflect other processes like repetition compulsion. Blocking unacceptable thoughts from conscious awareness is repression, not displacement.